Children in front of a screen: what is the impact of technology on their development?
Editorial Assistants: Charikleia Lampraki and Parnian Kourang Beheshti.
Note: An earlier version of this article has been published in the Italian version of In-Mind.
The use of technology, particularly digital devices, is having a negative impact on children’s psychological and physical development. This is largely due to two factors: today’s generations are growing up in an increasingly digital environment, and parents often allow extensive or unregulated use. In response, the international medical community has put forward recommendations aimed at regulating device use to minimize both short and long-term consequences.
If the term Anthropocene refers to the new geological era strongly influenced by human activity [1], the term Digital Era or Information Age [2] refers to the current historical phase shaped by the production and commer cialization of navigation systems and communication tools such as mobile phones, which today are owned and used by 68% of the world’s population [3].
The changes brought about by the digital revolution have transformed not only the world of information, consumers’ needs, and people’s habits, but have also updated the vocabulary used to define generations, according to the technological period in which individuals are born and live. In this regard, the expression digital natives refers to those who were born and raised in close contact with new technologies, to the point of considering them a natural and familiar element of their daily experience.
But how many generations of digital natives have been classified so far? There is Generation Z, those born between the mid-1990s and the early 2010s, and Generation Alpha, referring to people born between 2010 and 2024. It is worth noting that starting from 2007, with the launch of the iPhone, the spread and use of touch devices became predominant, leading to the identification of those born from 2007 onwards as the Touch Generation, also known as the Screen Generation.
What distinguishes these generations from the previous ones is the highly technological environment in which they have interacted since their earliest years. As a result, the ability to use digital devices (see glossary) has become stronger even among preschool-aged children, mainly because their parents use these devices in their presence and often allow them to do so as well. Moreover, digital devices are used by parents to keep their children occupied, thus turning them into real babysitters of the new millennium [4], which, as reported by the Italian Society of Pediatrics [5], serve to calm and distract children as if they were emotional pacifiers.
This pattern of use also emerges from another research [6], in which 30% of parents surveyed stated that they use digital tools for this purpose, even though this may lead younger children to become isolated from reality and to form an emotional attachment to the device. The frequency of use among children also depends on how simple these devices are to operate. For example, interacting with touchscreens requires no basic skills or prior learning [7]; the only action required is to touch them. Children instinctively touch and test screens, believing that the objects displayed are part of the real world [8].
But how many children actually own a mobile phone or digital device? In Italy, 80% of children aged 3 to 5 know how to interact with their parents’ smartphones [6], and the health emergency caused by the spread of COVID-19 has led to an increase in children’s personal use of mobile phones. Before the pandemic, 9.2% of children aged 1 to 5 owned a mobile phone; now 14.5% do [9]. According to the same authors, 58.4% of children aged 6 to 10 own a device—a higher percentage (23.5%) compared to the period of the first lockdown (March–May 2020).
Starting in March 2020, in order to contain the COVID-19 pandemic, Italy implemented restrictive measures that had significant repercussions on individual and collective life [10]. During the first lockdown period, there was a noticeable increase in the use of technology, social networks, and online games among children and adolescents [11], [12]. Furthermore, a study conducted in Italy by the Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies of the National Research Council (ISTC-CNR) between April and May 2020, involving a sample of children aged 8–14, found gender differences in the use of digital devices: in fact, girls made more video calls to friends (73% vs. 58%) and spent more time on social media (38.1% vs. 17.9%) compared to boys, while boys played video games more than girls (76.6% vs. 52.8%) [10].
As for screen time, a U.S. survey [13] found that children aged 8–10 spend an average of six hours per week on screens, which increases to nine hours among those aged 11–14 (not including school use). In addition, according to another U.S. study [14] in 98% of households with at least one child aged 0–8 there is a digital device—an increase from 75% in 2013—while 73% of children (0–8 years) are exposed to screens from early childhood, and 48% personally own a digital device (compared to 12% in 2013). Other data [15] show that 39% of children aged 3 to 4 use a mobile phone, and 78% use a tablet— a percentage that increases among 5- to 7-year-olds (83%), while 61% of them personally own a smartphone. As Carr [16] points out, the dilemma we now face is that technologies are increasingly becoming extensions of ourselves while we, in turn, are becoming extensions of them. For this reason, it is of fundamental importance to focus on the impact that digital devices have on childhood and adolescence, in order to implement strategies that can limit the damage caused by transforming real developmental experiences into exclusively virtual ones— those that take place in front of a screen [17].
The Possible Negative and Positive Effects of Technologies on Children’s Development
Having seen how widespread the use of technology is among children: it is now useful to examine its impact on child development and on personal and family relationships. Recent findings [5] highlight the effects of early exposure to screens on learning, neurocognitive development, overall well-being, as well as on vision, hearing and metabolic and circulatory functions [18] in preschool-age children. In the literature, the term “screens” refers to very different objects, including smartphones, tablets, computers, and televisions [19]. The latter certainly represents a more obsolete tool compared to modern technological devices, yet it has been in use for a longer time and is still widely used by both adults and children. According to a recent survey [20], in 2020, 95.2% of children aged 3 to 5 regularly watched television, compared to 88.7% in 2000. Based on the study conducted by the Italian Society of Pediatrics [5], the following effects of digital device use among children can be identified.
Learning
The use of touchscreens can influence learning in general, reducing attention span and cognitive performance in young children [21]. Alternatively, language learning can be facilitated by watching videos [22] and by using educational applications but only when a parent is present [23], [24].
Neural Development
A child’s neural development can also be affected by television left on in the background [25], which can impact the quality of the parent–child relationship, attention levels, and the quality of social relationships [26]. Given the high plasticity of children’s brains [27], they can undergo changes in response to external experiences, and transient alterations in mood or arousal may also occur [28].
Well-being
Regarding general well-being, using digital devices for more than two hours per day can negatively affect physical health and be associated with increased body weight—since it promotes sedentary behavior [21] — as well as with behavioral problems that may lead to depression or aggressive behavior [29]. Furthermore, a correlation has been found between tablet use and symptoms such as headaches and muscle pain (particularly in the neck and shoulders), due to poor posture [30].
Sleep
Sleep quality and circadian rhythm can be compromised by factors such as stimulating content and the electromagnetic radiation emitted by screen light exposure [31]. The simultaneous use of multiple devices for more than two hours a day can cause difficulties and delays in falling asleep [32], [21]. Additionally, having a television in the bedroom affects sleep quality, especially for children aged 1 to 4, since it can lead to fear of the dark, nightmares, and nighttime talking [33].
Vision and Hearing
Prolonged use of tablets and smartphones can cause dry eyes, and when held too close, also eye strain, glare, and irritation [34]. It may also lead to acquired concomitant esotropia, a form of strabismus that occurs when double vision (see glossary) appears — initially affecting distance vision and later near vision as well [35]. Exposure to high noise levels emitted by digital devices can alter sound perception, potentially interfering with the development of language, communication, and interaction with other children [36].
Parent child interaction
Up to this point, we have focused on the effects of technology use on the psychophysical development of children, but it is also interesting to turn our attention to personal and family relationships. A recent study [37], focused on play interruptions in the mother–child relationship (children aged between 7 and 23 months), showed that a mother’s use of a mobile phone reduces the quality of communication and has a strong impact on children’s emotional regulation and on the quality of their expressive-emotional communication. This behavior consequently affects cognitive, emotional, and language development [38] and hinders the child’s sense of security and overall psychophysical well-being [19].
Furthermore, the use of digital devices can reduce verbal and non-verbal interactions between adults and children, and can lead to conflicts, oppositional reactions, and unemotional behaviors [25], [40].
The analysis of the effects of improper technology use has highlighted its potential risks. However, it is important to note that appropriate use, especially in the presence of a parent, can mitigate harm and support the development of certain skills, such as problem-solving [23]. Nevertheless, for children under the age of two, interactions with parents and with the surrounding environment remain the fundamental factors for healthy psychophysical development [41].
The Role of Parents in the Conscious and Active Use of Digital Devices
The family is the primary environment for growth, in which the educational, emotional, and communicative relationship between adults and children is established. The family context is predominant, especially during the first 1,000 days of life. Today, the presence of technology presents new challenges for family relationships and often risks replacing parental figures [6]. For this reason, as early as 2013, the American Academy of Pediatrics issued the first recommendations for regulating use of digital devices. These recommendations were later shared by the Italian Society of Pediatrics [5] and expanded by the World Health Organization [41], which also introduced strategies to promote physical activity as a way to counter another effect of digital tools, known as sedentary screen time.
Essentially, for children under 2 years of age, the use of touchscreens is strongly discouraged, especially during meals, in the hour before bedtime, and/or as a calming tool. Between the ages of 2 and 5, screen exposure should be limited to a maximum of one hour per day, and to a maximum of two hours between the ages of 5 and 8.
Regarding screen-time duration, two interesting approaches are proposed, the first one by Tisseron [42], known as the 3–6– 9–12 rule or digital diet, and the second one by Shapiro [43]. According to Tisseron [42], just as children’s developmental milestones are respected in relation to their growth (e.g., entering preschool at age 3, primary school at 6, achieving full reading and writing skills at 9, and starting secondary school at 11–12), or as dietary rules are followed based on age-appropriate foods, so too should parents set progressive guidelines for introducing children to technology. Specifically, the author suggests the following approach: before age 3, children should avoid technological devices altogether, especially for play; before age 6, they should not have a personal tablet; internet access should be introduced after age 9, and social networks after age 12. Moreover, the method proposed by Shapiro can be also a useful tool for guiding parents. Essentially, the author argues that digital devices should become a means of family socialization for both parents and children, and, especially for the youngest, should not be used during meals. Children should be encouraged to under stand the technological devices they use, but only after having first experienced traditional activities such as play, since this helps develop genuine empathetic approach. When followed appropriately these guidelines help reduce the risk of habituation among younger children [44] and prevent digital addiction, which could emerge during adolescence. A safe and supervised use of technology is ensured by the parent’s presence: by sharing time with the child, parents can stimulate dialogue and help construct a narrative around the experience.
The time children spend on screens is often taken away from exploration and symbolic play. Symbolic play is a fundamental activity for children’s brain development. This is also because their brains are naturally predisposed to play [45]. Virtual play may compromise this symbolic competence, which begins to emerge around the age of two, when children start to demonstrate the ability to represent something that stands for something else [46]. This ability is fostered when young children are allowed to handle, for example, paper books, as this helps them transfer the information contained in the text to real-world contexts, thereby understanding the dual nature of images [47].
In addition to what has been discussed so far, parents must be aware that excessive and uncontrolled use of technology can confuse children’s sense of reality versus virtuality and may expose them to virtual dangers such as cyberbullying. Indeed, according to data [48], 31% of minors have been victims of at least one such episode in their lifetime. According to [49], online browsing exposes children to four main categories of risk: content risks, when children are exposed to materials available to all internet users without age restrictions; conduct risks, when children themselves are involved in peer-to-peer exchanges and engage in inappropriate behavior; contact risks, when children may become victims of harmful online situations; and consumer risks, referring to dangers hidden within apps, such as in-app purchases.
Within the category of content risks fall hate-inciting materials (e.g., images or words targeting a specific religion, gender, etc.), harmful content (such as online scams or pornographic advertisements), illegal content (violations of laws or social norms), and misinformation.
Behaviors that endanger children’s conduct include hateful, harmful, illegal, or problematic behaviors — such as the exchange of sexual messages or images. Meanwhile, contact risks refer to behaviors such as cyberbullying (bullying carried out through digital devices), sexting (sending sexual messages or images), and sextortion (sexual extortion).
Finally, risks related to privacy, health, and well-being fall into the previously defined category of consumer risks. Although parents often consider digital environments and certain devices safe, these are not always secure or functional contexts and tools. As we have seen, alongside the opportunities they offer, they also expose children to risks and prevent them from experiencing themselves in the world as social beings, limiting direct interactions with their surroundings, even though this decision is often experienced by parents as a dilemma [50].
Free Play and Early Socialization: A Possible Solution
Today’s children live in a profound paradox: on the one hand, they are increasingly left to use digital technologies autonomously; on the other, their independence in engaging in play and moving freely in their environment is steadily decreasing. They can access an almost unlimited amount of online content and information, yet the experience of leaving the house to meet and play with friends has become increasingly rare over the years. Undoubtedly, the new opportunities provided by the online world and digital tools have created stimulating and enriching possibilities for growth compared to the past. Children are skilled at manipulating technological devices, but at the same time, younger children are increasingly lonely and overprotected [51].
They rarely experience risky play, which many scholars consider essential for achieving one’s desires and developing judgment and autonomy [52], [53], [54]. In our view, it is therefore necessary to ensure that children continue to explore and experiment in the offline context as well, moving independently within their neighborhoods to rebuild relationships with their surroundings, develop a sense of belonging and community, and engage in free play with peers.
As we have seen, depriving children of this opportunity can expose them to developmental risks, particularly the failure to acquire relational rules and cognitive tools that enable them to effectively manage peer relationships, cope with complex real-life situations by identifying effective strategies, and build confidence in their own abilities [55]. Without intending to demonize the use of technology, we believe that a healthy balance between online and offline experiences is essential. Interacting with people and the world solely through the filter of a screen does not allow children to fully benefit from the opportunities that life can offer, just as early socialization that takes place exclusively (or almost exclusively) in front of a screen, and rarely outside the home, limits their development. Pursuing this balance could well be the new challenge that parents, educators, and adults in general are called upon to face.
Bibliography
[1] P. J. Crutzen, Benvenutinell’Antropocene!, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, 2005.
[2] T. C. Helvey, The age of information: an interdisciplinary survey of cybernetics. Educational Technology Pubns, 1971.
[3] We are Social, I Dati Globali, 2023: https://wearesocial.com/it/blog/2023/01/digital-2023-i-dati-globali/.
[4] I. Viola, and M. Lucantoni, Device, il babysitter del nuovo millennio, 2022: https://www.istitutopsicoterapie.com/device-il-babysitter-del-nuovo-millennio/.
[5] Società Italiana di Pediatria (SIP), Smartphone e tablet già nel primo anno di vita: no altelefonino “pacificatore”. Arrivano le Raccomandazioni della Società Italiana di Pediatria, 2018: https://sip.it/2018/06/18/smartphone-tablet-gia-nel-primo-anno-vita-no-al-telefonino-pacificatore-arrivano-le-raccomandazioni-della-societa-italiana pediatria/.
[6] M. L. Genta, Bambini digitali?.Cosa significa davvero mettere in mano ai nostripiccoli cellularie device. Rischi e opportunità da 0 a 6 anni. Collana Le Comete, Editore FrancoAngeli, 2021.
[7] K. Kopecký, and L. Hejsek, Mobile Touch Devices as An Effective Tools of M-Learning and E-Learning. In INTED2015 Proceedings, 7934-7936. IATED, 2015.
[8] S. Dini, and L. Ferlino, La conoscenza tra le dita dei bambini. Imparare a giocare a tempodi app. TD Tecnologie Didattiche, 24(3), 147-155, 2016.
[9]M. Picca, P. Ferri, P. Manzoni, C. Bove, S. Mantovani, and N. Cavalli, Bambini elockdown un anno dopo: la parola ai genitori, 2021.
[10] D. Renzi, and E. Saioni, L’ascolto dei bambini durante una situazione di emergenza. Un’esperienza di educazione alla democrazia.Scuola democratica, 12(3), 547-565, 2021.
[11] N. Idoiaga, N. Berasategi, A. Eiguren, and M. Picaza, Exploring Children’s Social and Emotional Representations of the Covid-19 Pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1-9, 2020.
[12] Telefono Azzurro, Coronavirus l’indagine di Telefono Azzurro e Doxa, 2020:https://azzurro.it/press/coronavirus-lindagine-telefono-azzurro-edoxa/?fbclid=IwAR3o8mW7xUkfwreFya8L_0QBXuEV2Z3XZRMi4y6ty0MnJB9bgPvrwjLhFJs
[13] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Screen Time vs. Lean Time Infographic, 2018:https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/47582.
[14] V. Rideout, and M. B. Robb, The Common Sense census: Media use by kids age zero to eight, 2020. San Francisco, CA: Common Sense Media, 2020. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/research/report/202...ensus_final_web.pdf
[15] Office of communication (Ofcom), Children and parents: media use and attitudes report, 2022: https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0023/238361/online-nation-2022-report.pdf.
[16] N. Carr, Internet ci rende stupidi? Come la rete sta cambiando il nostro cervello. Raffaello Cortina Editore, 2010.
[17] G. Riva, Nativi digitali. Crescere e apprendere nel mondo dei nuovi media. Il Mulino,2019.
[18] E. Bozzola, G. Spina, M. Ruggiero, L. Memo, R. Agostiniani, M.Bozzola, and A. Villani, Media devices in pre-school children: the recommendations of the Italian pediatric society. Italian journal of pediatrics, 44(1), 1-5, 2018.
[19] M. Grollo, S. Zanor, C. Oretti, A. Di Leva, and T. Gerosa, Bambini, schermi e benessere. QUADERNI ACP, 30(1), 22-25, 2023.
[20] Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (ISTAT), Tempo libero e partecipazione culturale. Travecchie e nuove pratiche, 2022: https://www.istat.it/it/files//2022/09/Tempo-libero-e-partecipazione- culturale_Ebook.pdf.
[21] M. Desmurget, Il cretino digitale. Rizzoli, 2020.
[22] M. Ebbeck, H. Y. B. Yim, Y. Chan, and M. Goh, Singaporean parents’views of their young children’s access and use of technological devices. Early Childhood Education Journal, 44, 127-134, 2016.
[23] C. Chiong, and C. Shuler, Learning: Is there an app for that. In Investigations of young children’s usage and learning with mobile devices and apps. New York: The Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop, 13-20, 2010.
[24] D. L. Linebarger, R. Barr, M. A. Lapierre, and J. T. Piotrowski, Associations between parenting, media use, cumulative risk, and children’s executive functioning. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 35(6), 367-377, 2014.
[25] M. E. Schmidt, T. A. Pempek, H. L. Kirkorian, A. F. Lund, and D. R. Anderson, The effects of background television on the toy play behavior of very young children. Child development, 79(4), 1137-1151, 2008.
[26] L. S. Pagani, C. Fitzpatrick, T. A. Barnett, and E. Dubow, Prospective associations between early childhood television exposure and academic, psychosocial, and physical well-being by middle childhood. Archives of pediatrics; adolescent medicine, 164(5), 425-431, 2010.
[27] A. Oliverio, Il cervello che impara: Neuropedagogia dall’infanzia alla vecchiaia. Giunti Psychometrics, 2017.
[28] D. Bavelier, C. S. Green, and M. W. Dye, Children, wired: For better and for worse. Neuron, 67(5), 692-701, 2010.
[29] J. W. Toumbourou, I. Williams, P. Letcher, A. Sanson, and D. Smart, Developmental trajectories of internalising behaviour in the prediction of adolescent depressive symptoms. Australian Journal of Psychology, 63(4), 214-223, 2011.
[30] H. Y. A. Chiang and C. H. Liu, Exploration of the associations of touch-screen tablet computer usage and musculoskeletal discomfort. Work, 53(4), 917-925, 2016.
[31] N. Cain, and M. Gradisar, Electronic media use and sleep in school-aged children and adolescents: A review. Sleep medicine, 11(8), 735-742, 2010.
[32] M. Hysing, S.Pallesen, K. M. Stormark, R. Jakobsen, A. J. Lundervold, and B. Sivertsen, Sleep and use of electronic devices in adolescence: results from a large population-based study. BMJ open, 5(1), 2015.
[33] P. E. Brockmann, B. Diaz, F. Damiani, L. Villarroel, F. Núñez, and O. Bruni, Impact of television on the quality of sleep in preschool children. Sleep medicine, 20, 140-144, 2016.
[34] J. H. Moon, K. W. Kim, and N. J. Moon, Smartphone use is a risk factor for pediatric dry eye disease according to region and age: a case control study. BMC ophthalmology, 16,1-7, 2016.
[35] H. S. Lee, S. W. Park, and H. Heo, Acute acquired comitant esotropia related to excessive Smartphone use. BMC ophthalmology, 16, 1-7, 2016.
[36]R. Tayler, Ear bud danger: What’s happening to your, 2015: https://eu.desmoinesregister.com/story/opinion/columnists/iowa-view/2015....
[37] S. Myruski, O. Gulyayeva, S. Birk, K. Pérez‐Edgar, K. A. Buss, and T. A. Dennis‐Tiwary, Digital disruption? Maternal mobile device use is related to infant social‐emotional functioning. Developmental science, 21(4), 2028.
[38] A. J. Morris, M. L.Filippetti, and S. Rigato, The impact of parents’ smartphone use on language development in young children. Child Development Perspectives, 16(2), 103-109, 2022.
[39] N. J. Wagner, W. R. Mills-Koonce, C. B. Propper, M. T. Willoughby, P. D. Rehder, G. A.Moore, and M. J.Cox, Associations between infant behaviors during the face-to-face stillface paradigm and oppositional defiant and callous-unemotional behaviors in early childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44, 1439-1453, 2016.
[40] Y. L. Reid Chassiakos, J. Radesky, D. Christakis, M.A. Moreno, and C. Cross, Children and Adolescents and Digital Media. Pediatrics, 138(5), 2016.
[41] World Health Organization (WHO), Guidelines on physical activity, sedentary behaviorand sleep for children under 5 years of age, 2019: https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/311664.
[42] S. Tisseron, 3-6-9-12. Diventare grandi all’epoca degli schermi digitali. Editrice La Scuola, 2016.
[43] J. Shapiro, Il metodo per crescere i bambini nel mondo digitale. Newton Compton Editori, 2019.
[44] B. Johnson, Impacts of screen media on young children. BHM Medical Journal, 7(4), 1-5, 2020.
[45] J. Harding, The Brain that Loves to Play: A Visual Guide to Child Development, Play, and Brain Growth. Routledge, 2023.
[46] S. Bonino, Fare finta: molto più di un gioco. Psicologia contemporanea, 2018:https://www.psicologiacontemporanea.it/blog/fare-finta-molto-piu-di-un-gioco/.
[47] J. S. DeLoache, The development of representation in young children. In Advances in child development and behavior, 22, 1-39. JAI, 1989.
[48] Moige, Tra digitale e cyber risk: rischi e opportunità del web, 2023:https://www.moige.it/2023/02/02/moige-il-lockdown-ha-aumentato-del-10-gli-episodi-di-bullismo-e-del-8-quelli-di-cyberbullismo-tra-i-minori-in-italia/.
[49] Organizzazione per la cooperazione e lo sviluppo economico (OCSE), Children in the digital environment. Revised typology of risks,2021: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9b8f222een.pdf?expires=170118094....
[50] H. Rosin, The touch-screen generation.The Atlantic, 20, 2013.
[51] F. Tonucci, La città dei bambini. Un nuovo modo di pensare la città, Zeroseiup, 2015.
[52] F. Bertolino, Salvare Robinson. La dimensione pedagogica del rischio nelle esperienzeall’aperto. Edizioni Junior-Bambini, 2022.
[53] F. Dolto, Il gioco del desiderio. L’esistenza di ogni essere umano è una partita giocatafra bisogno e desiderio. Collana Sapere, editore Sei, 1987.
[54] R. Farné, Per non morire di sicurezza. L’intenzionalità pedagogica del rischio ineducazione. Infanzia: studi e ricerche, 1, 15-23, 2014.
[55] M. Notte, and D. Renzi, Le cause psicosociali della perdita dell’autonomia dispostamento infantile. In-Mind Magazine, 22, 2022: https://it.in-mind.org/article/le-cause-psicosociali-della-perdita-della...,
